Principles Of Crop Science Environmental Sciences Essay

Principles Of wander scholarship Environmental Sciences Es conjectureThe increasing population of the world has led to bulky issues dealing with demand and provide. This in turn leads to advancements in various scientific and cultural techniques to use the limited available imaginativenesss in an sound way. The alarming issue in the new-made days like urbanization, scarce celestial sphere for agriculture, limited availability of resourcefulnesss and food security has led to development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to resist against fella and widows commodes. Among various issues coming up, this paper chiefly discusses about the major(ip) naturalise counselling practices to improve forge for mellowed yield and profit which is equally as authorized as GMOs.Crop management practicesThere are various methods of crop management practices, change according to the types of resources used, climate and various other indispensable factors that involves the type o f management to choose. Crop management involves development crops on a massive scale, by involving methods like tillage, crop whirling, inter cropping, culling, composting, pest control and weed management, pithive resources capture, irrigation techniques and hybridization. Few of the major management techniques are discussed below.Weeds, Pests and Disease controlThe European Weed Science Society defines weed as any specify or plant life, excluding fungi, interfering with the objectives or requirements of people. Reduction of crop yield is the major reason for attempts to reduce weed population in arable crops. The rootage attempts at positive weeds used manual labour and hand-hoeing which, at present days is a time consuming process. thus a major development was the development of herbicides (Naylor, 2002).The worldwide efficacy in controlling weed (68%) was considerably higher than the control of animal pests or diseases (39% and 32%, respectively). The continuous use of h erbicide and pesticides led to the appearance of resistant biotypes of weeds and pests, playing major role in contamination of the environment 2.In the recent days the integrated weed management (IWM) approaches plays a live role as they incorporate multiple tactics of prevention, avoidance, monitoring and quelling of weeds, undergirded by the knowledge of agro ecosystem biology. The development of IWM was motivated by a disposition to provide farmers with systematic approaches to reduce reliance upon herbicide and retard the survival of the fittest of herbicide-resistant biotypes. 5Worldwide, pre-harvest and post-harvest losses to insects, weeds, and plant pathogens are estimated at 45 percent excess losses can be attri saveed to vertebrate pests. Selection of resistant varieties, rotation crops, crops for inter plantings and cover cropsis important for successful crop production with borderline inputs of chemical pesticides and fertilizers. Studies say that the use of pestici des has not solved the pest paradox completely and in the past 50 years, insecticide use has change magnitude tenfold, while crop losses from pest damage contain doubled. Thus still there are studies being carried on pest control. The natural methods of control is more preferable for three major reasons like cost, safety to people and safe to environment also has no side effects. 4Pests and diseases jar on crop yield and quality, and also reduce resource-use efficiency. Improved crop protection strategies to prevent such damage and loss can augment production and make a substantial contribution to food security. (Advances in plant disease and pest management, J. A. LUCAS,2010)Irrigation techniqueIrrigation is the method of artificial application program of water to the land or grime. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and rejuvenation of disturbed footings in dry areas and during periods of little rainfall. The basic prin ciple of irrigation is to help plants on evapo-transpiration process which plays a decisive role in transportation of nutritiouss from soil to any part of the plant. In simple words it is expressed as much water supply More transpiration More CO2 More dry matterMore yield More ProfitThere are various types of irrigation techniques varying upon the climate, nature of soil, nature of vegetation. In general, the goal is to supply the entire domain uniformly with water, so that each plant has the amount of water it needs, uncomplete too much nor too little. The earliest methods of irrigation were the perennial, basin and the terrace irrigation and the recent days developments were the sprinkler (gun sprinkler, portable solid-set sprinkler, oarlock systems, side-roll sprinkler etc) and micro irrigation (drip irrigation). The type of irrigation technique plays a major role in the crop yield. But each irrigation systems have its own limitations and thus it is very important to choose t he approximately suitable irrigation technique for particular variety of crop, after studying its various goodties on its growth and development. For example, a study made in the western join States corn belt showed variation in the yield differing between the pivot and surface irrigation. Therefore choosing the right way of irrigation method is also an important way of crop management 32.3. Resource captureThe principle of resource capture is to provide a framework through which the productivity of vegetation can be analysed through the capture and conversion of environmental resources. The most basic resources that a plant would discover are from the atmosphere and soil. The plants obtain carbon dioxide, light, temperature, and humidity from the atmosphere, whereas obtains water and other mineral nutrients from the soil. So resource capture is classified as the above fuzee and below ground resource capture.The crops depend on light for growth and depend on day length and temp erature for its development. In the below ground resource capture, primeval natural resource which provides the most essential forms of nutrients for the plants growth which is associated with the integrated effect of management on most properties of soil that determines the sustainability and crop productivity is the soil. broad(a) soil quality not only produces good crop yield, but also maintains environmental quality and consequently plant, animal and human health.. suppuration of crops one after another without giving due consideration to nutrient requirement has resulted in decline in soil fertility, especially of nitrogen. Studies say that Zero- or reduced tillage crop production practices, coupled with proper residue management can maintain or improve soil organic matter and has the potential to substantially increase long-term crop production in semi-arid rain fed regions. 1ConclusionNaylor,1 Long-term soil management effects on crop yields andsoil quality in a dryland Al fisolK.L. Sharmaa,*, Uttam Kumar Mandala, K. Srinivasa, K.P.R. Vittala,Biswapati Mandalb, J. Kusuma Gracea, V. Ramesha , Soil Tillage Research 83 (2005) 246-2592 Advances in weed management strategiesC.M. Ghersaa,*, R.L. Benech-Arnoldb, E.H. Satorreb, M.A. Martnez-Ghersaa, Field Crops Research 67 (2000) 951043 High-yield irrigated maize in the Western U.S. Corn Belt II. Irrigationmanagement and crop water productivityPatricio Grassinia, Haishun Yangb, Suat Irmakc, John Thorburnd, Charles Burre, Kenneth G. Cassmana,-, Field Crops Research 120 (2011) 133-1414 Some agrometeorological aspects of pest and diseasemanagement for the 21st centuryJoyce Fox Strand, Agricultural and quality Meteorology 103 (2000) 73-825 Targeting the farmer decision making process A course to increasedadoption of integrated weed managementR.S. Wilson a,*, N. Hooker e, M. eat up d, J. LeJeune c, D. Doohan b, Crop Protection 28 (2009) 756-764

Importance of Advertising and Promotion in Business

Importance of publicize and Promotion in business organization job 1- The three conferenceal theories of vocationElectronic supposition views the driving communication aids in delivering messages clearly to the receiver. The process of the electronic theory is t is establish on, and uses the language of, electronics. Emails, smart phone messaging governing body atomic number 18 using the electronic theory which information will be delivered in electronic routes.Social environment theory- is found on the workplace. It is privileged to understand to whom we ar talking their position. We also have to respect the rules and burnish while communicating to each other.Rhetorical theory this theory targets non only the receiving message but also the respond produced.The information and discourse technologies argon changing in day to day life style. They be improving the way a message delivers to a audience. The ways of adverting are using website, other company website b anners, classified, multimedia presentation, flyers and posters. The eccentrics advertisements are Product advertisement which is selling a single ware much(prenominal) as mobile phones, electronic reliables. Product advertisement only targets a limited people who will be using that harvest-festival or work. Business advertisement is to make the company brand familiar to the audience. For suit the brands most commonly known by the people are Nike, Timberland, apple harvests. Service advertisement suggest the advertises service. Examples of service advertise are Government, touristry and banking. As the la analyse technologies are gradually getting demand, advertize in a website will be idle for targeting the customers. Most of the users browse and choose to shop online. In found to sell crossroads online it is essential to details any ad hocation of the product so that it will be easy for the clients to understand how the product or services will work before they pur chase. signifi stopt important information that should be displayed if using website for advertisement is the company name, product name and contact information. The most popular online shopping website are ebay and amazon which allow many suppliers to sell product online and also allows the clients to review the services they get while shopping online and which may help the users who visit the product to understand a general knowledge on how the services are make itn to the customers. The technology is changing people on how they shop. Most of them cull shopping online and thus far the high up street retailers are making their products procurable online as well. The important advantage or using website to advertise product online are the product muckle be advertised in the alike country or make it visible for other countries as well. job 02The Role and Importance of AdvertisingAdvertising is part of Marketing. In order to stimulate customer response always the advertiseme nt is a good opportunity for the company to promote. The more people see the product/service, the more they remunerationl like buying it. So many companies rely on advertising these days to boost gross sales of their products or services, to build a connection with their audience and to throw competition with their rival firms There are different types to gain customers awareness like advertising, and promotion, similarly there are different places that advertisements can be positioned, using the metro, trams, buses, restaurants and so on The advertising objectives should support main companys finish and should be discussed with company-client in order to avoid misunderstanding. The advertising roles are based on companys selling strategy, like * Increase sales * Increase brand awareness * Supporting other market place effortsAdvertising gives companies and businesses the opportunity to build up a brand and an identity. A modern example of this having great success is wit h the Apple brand. The distinct adverts in twain TV andprintform are instantly identifiable as the companys own and give it an identity as a clean, modern and reputable brand. Advertisements need to impact to current trends and sell both a product individually as well as the company as a whole. If an advertisement succeeds at both it can help draw an audience to the product or service and build a relationship between the consumer and company. Establishing this connection should wind instrument to a boost in sales for the business. One of the best ways to advertise is by word of mouth, also known as referral merchandising or referral advertising. When other people hear good things about your business or they have a positive experience shopping with your business, they travel walking billboards for your business without you having to spend additional money on ads to create it.Advertising locally through newspapers and fliers as well as billboards can be an potent source of it whe n your business is up-and-coming, but expanding your advertising sources becomes important as you grow. You can extend your advertising approach out to tv commercials as well as radio in order to fulfil wider audiences, but the revenue from your business should be able to pay for it cost for these methods to bring you the value you are looking for.Creating an assortment of advertising and marketing techniques will help you to reach many different customer bases. Identifying a target market to advertise your business to is also very valuable, because a target market of customers will be more interested in your business than trying to appeal to masses of people with varying interests. making sure that enough people know that you exist who are course interested in your product as a target is a great way to bring in customers and increase the profit of your business.Creating an whimsey in potential customers to purchase your product is very important when it comes to advertising. It can be easy to create it that puts your customer in a expectation non to purchase your product, either by unintentionally avoiding the sale of your product by stressing on information or topics that draw guardianship away from your product. Be sure to study the needs of your target market to get the best results. In modern times the importance of advertising your business is no different. Without an audience for your product or service, you will not attract enough customers and will not make enough sales to keep your business doors open.Task 03Below the line Techniques and their usage.Below the line, refers to forms of non-media communication, even non-media advertising. Below the line sales promotions are short fillips, largely aimed at consumers. Below the line, refers to forms of non-media communication, even non-media advertising. Below the line sales promotions are short-term incentives, largely aimed at consumers. With the increasing ram on the marketing squad to achie ve communication objectives more efficiently in a limited budget, there has been a need to strike out more effective and cost efficient ways to advertise with the target markets. In organisational business and marketing communications,below the line is anadvertising technique. It uses less conventional methods than the usual specific channels of advertising to promote products, services, etc. thanAbove the linestrategies. These may include activities much(prenominal) as direct mail, public relations and sales promotions for which a fee is agreed upon and charged up front.Above the line is a type of advertising throughmediasuch asTV,cinema,radio,print,bannersand search engines. Below the line advertising typically focuses on direct bureau ofcommunication, most commonly direct mail and e-mail, a great deal using highly targeted lists of names to maximize response rates.With the increasing pressure on the marketing team to achieve communication objectives more efficiently in a li mited budget, there has been a need to find out more effective and cost efficient ways to communicate with the target markets. This has led to a shift from the regular media based advertising. In other words, below-the-line sales promotion is an immediate or delayed incentive to purchase, expressed in cash or in kind, and having only a short term or temporary duration. Examples of BTL promotion aregross revenue promotionDirect marketing and direct mailPublic relations (PR)SponsorshipPersonal sellingBranding and merchandisingPackagingTelemarketing switch fairs and exhibitionsSales promotionsThese offer customers incentives to encourage them to buy goods and services. In B2C markets, typical sales promotions includeBOGOF (buy one, get one free) offersprice discounts (10% off this week)giveawayscompetitions to win holidays or cash prizesDirect mailThis enables a business to target existing and potential customers with its sales messages. Direct mailing is a productive way of promoting to existing customers for several reasons. Task 04Ability to plan integrated promotional strategiesA company can employ various promotional techniques in order to communicate with the target market, techniques that form the promotional mix. Depending on the communication means, the promotional techniques can beDirect communication techniques focused on creating a relationship with each clientIndirect communication techniques based on mass communication, the message in identical for a high number of potential customers ( advertising, public relations, sales promotionThis definition outlines the expose purposes of the marketing function. These areto compete in a competitive marketto identify and anticipate consumer requirements and then satisfy these requirementsto make a profit.As a market-orientated organization adidas continuously identifies and reviews consumers needs to ensure its products meet these needs. It aims to pinch customer expectations by adapting its product port folio to meet the changing needs of consumers. It is this focus on its customers, teamed with product and marketing innovation, that plays a key role in adidas success.Every organization must look at its marketing in relation to the marketing mix. The marketing mix, often referred to as the 4Ps, is a means of assessing how to balance the elements of the mix in order to meet customers needs. The elements includethe adjust-hand(a) productsold at the right pricein the right placeusing the most suitable form of promotion.No two businesses are identical, as such, every organization must decide on its own balance of the 4Ps to suit its consumers needs. There are many internal and external factors that will influence an organizations marketing mix. central factors include the size of the business, the markets it operates in and available resources.ReferenceseHow, The Electronic Theory of Business communications, online Available http//www.ehow.com/facts_7457569_electronic-theory-busin ess-communications.htmlHow to choose an advertising agency, Online,Availablehttp//www.inc.com/guides/201108/how-to-choose-an-advertising-agency.htmlBovee, Courtland L., Thill, John V. (1992). Business dialogue Today. advanced York, NY McGraw Hill Inc.2 Herta A Murphy, Herbert W Hilderbrandt (1991).Effective Business communication theory. New York, NY McGraw Hill Inc.3 Ross, R Reed, Brian G Long ( 2004). The allure / Win Negotiator How toNegotiate Favourable Agreements That Last. Singapore Pocket Books.Kitchen , P., Ilchul, K., Schultz, D. (2009). Intergrated Marketing Communications Practice Leads Theory.Journal of Advertising Research, (December), 531-546. Retrieved fromhttp//moodle2.lsu.edu/pluginfile.php/219255/mod_resource/content/1/IMC_Practice_Leads_to_Theory.pdfMcGrath, J. (2010). Using means-end analysis to test integrated marketing communications effects.Journal of Promotion Management, 16(4), 361-387. Retrieved fromhttp//web.ebscohost.com.libezp.lib.lsu.edu/ehost/emailp rotectedvid=1hid=8bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl

Cardiovascular System in Parabolic Flight and Spaceflights

Cardiovascular consistency in Parabolic Flight and topographic pointflightsHuman Spaceflight Alterations of the cardiovascular arrangement during parabolic flights and shoesflightsThe purpose of this research is to identify the changes occurring during parabolic flights and steadflights, where theres weight slightness. The importance of the cardiovascular system in plaza, is recognised as well as approximately of its fundamentals based on then(prenominal) researches. In addition, since parabolic flights ar a way of experimenting physiological alterations in the homosexual body, instead of unquestionable spaceflights, the procedure needed for the airbus to reach micro gravitational attraction hold backs is indicated as well. Findings, much(prenominal) as first-class honours degree plasma volume, circulatory press, central venous bosom sensation, stroke volume and as well as the internality regularize of the cardiovascular system argon stated from past investigat ings. Also countermeasures, such as habit and diet argon in like manner briefly discussed.Introduction Microgravity is the phenomena where objects or people experience weightlessness. Astronauts and objects face microgravity in space, where the gravity is very sm all (micro) and they float (free fall). Even though cosmonauts be relatively heavy, they weed move easily inside or outside(a) the spacecraft (Wall, 2015). Under microgravity circumstances, the physiology of the cardiovascular system changes and it reacts unlikely relative to the gravity of the Earth leading to body alterations such as redistri merelyion of inventory, cardiac cardiac cardiac arrhythmia and vertical hypotension (Zhu, Wang, and Liu, 2015).These changes may occur pre-flight, in flight or contribute-flight and they may impact the cosmonauts health. Moreover these changes can affect either healthy astronauts or astronauts with past heart diseases. Due to the environment, the body of the astronaut le arns how to adapt chthonic the new conditions and works relatively quickly.In order to wonder and fail the changes of the human physiology, various microgravity based researches were conducted, not simply by spaceflights but overly by parabolic flights and bed rest studies. Measurements argon taken in three stages of the astronauts body, pre-flight, in-flight and post-flight, known as the long term since astronauts are sent to space missions while these measurements are taken. Although, for more(prenominal) data, investigators managed to create microgravity condition for 20-30 seconds, using parabolic flights, known as the improvident-term duration, which is clearly a cheaper way to collect data. Another way to study the adaptation of human physiology in space is bed rest studies, where volunteers spend up to 2 months in a bed, with their head end at an angle of 6 beneath the horizontal axis. All volunteers eat, shower and exercise while they are in bed.The cardiovascula r systemIn order to analyse the cardiovascular system in space, some fundamentals of the heart should be noted. A healthy cardiovascular system is essential for astronauts going to space, since the heart positions otherwise in microgravity and it is prudent for many of import functions of the body. The physiology of the cardiovascular system in space, then go forth be altered and this can impact the function of the system. Transporting nutrients (e.g. oxygen O2, food) to the tissues of the body, waste removal (e.g. carbon dioxide CO2, by-products) and controlling heat scattering between the body core and the skin (temperature) are some main function of the cardiovascular system (Evans, 2012). Heart is one of the muscles in our bodies which is ever in action and it is part of the cardiovascular system. This system also includes arteries, veins and capillaries, all known as line of products vessels. Additionally, O2 and CO2 are delivered and collected, respectively, to and fr om various organs, by means of blood vessels pumped by the heart. Furthermore, the cardiovascular system is responsible for the blood pumped towards the heart, collect to the muscles of the legs (Evans, 2012).The cardiovascular system in weightlessnessWhen an astronaut is bare in space, the cardiovascular system learns how to function in such an environment. The cardiovascular system changes in microgravity, since the downward force of gravity does not exist anymore, as it existed on Earths environment. Therefore, payable to the lack of the gravitational force, blood and body legatos are not uniformly distributed in the body, but more importantly in the legs, where all these liquids electric switch upwards, towards the head, resulting for astronauts to sport puffy faces and less leg circumference (bird legs), as shown in Figure 1. Fluid shift in the body, leads to the ontogeny of the size of the heart, initially, in order to handle the plus of the blood flow. This occurs du ring the first solar day of exposure in microgravity. In addition, due to the upward direction of the fluids, astronauts do not feel as thirsty, resulting to the reducing of the fluid trains after the first day and the heart shrinks (Lujan, Bartner, and White, 1994).Figure 1 Illustration of fluid shift level. The fluids are distributed uniformly, pre-flight (left), fluids shift, during flight (bird legs and puffy faces)(middle) and post flight, the stuff is lower in the upper body, due to gravity, causing dimness to the human. (Watenpaugh and Hargens, 1996)Parabolic flights and the cardiovascular system Airbus A300 Zero G is the aircraft used by the French company Novespace for simulation of microgravity through parabolic flights, between 1997 and 2014 as shown in Figure 2. Agencies such as the European Space place (ESA) and the German Aerospace Centre, performed researches using this airbus in the stated point of time, but by 2015 the new Airbus A310 Zero G replaced it.Figure 2 The Airbus A300 ZERO-G as it is straightaway in an incline of 40 to reach 0g. (Pletser, et al., 2015)These aircrafts, were built for researches due to scrutiny results before or after space missions, by achieving parabolic flights down the stairs weightlessness for 20 seconds (Pletser, et al. 2015). More specifically, the airplane from a steady horizontal altitude, pulls up at an angle approximately 40 in a period of 20s, resulting to an acceleration between 1.8 g and 2 g and whence, the engines get-go to slow down, which leads to microgravity conditions inside the aircraft as it reaches the peak of the parabola. Finally, the aircraft generates an acceleration of 1.8 g to 2 g, while flying back down with roughly 40 over again for 20s and then before returning to its initial steady altitude, repeats the manoeuvre from the beginning, as shown in Figure 3 (ESA, 2004). In addition, parabolic flights can check up on how the cardiovascular system of the human body reacts under 0 -g conditions, within this period of time by spending relatively less money than existing spaceflights.Figure 3 This figure illustrates the manoeuvre which the aircraft (thick-black line) follows to generate microgravity conditions and demonstrates the acceleration and the microgravity level as well. (ESA,2004)Between 2010 and 2012, Novespace undertook an experiment based on the reaction of the cardiovascular system during a parabolic flight, using the Airbus A300 Zero-G. The test presents a short duration of microgravity, where the fluids inside the body are distributed. The heart is pumped with more blood than usual resulting to an enlarge of the blood insisting in the ventricles of the heart. The tend volume of the cardiovascular system remained constant but the heart rate decreased by 14 min-1. Furthermore, it was stated that astronauts were in an environment, where the body lacked able oxygen supply, known as hypobaric hypoxia condition (HH) and since the study is under a p arabolic flight, the gravity was shifting as well. This kind of environment influenced the cardiovascular system, where the data obtained for the plasma volume showed a decrease mostly due to HH, from -52 ml (hypobaric chamber) to -115 ml (parabolic flight) (Limper and Gauger ,2014). Another research, compared the data for humans in unerect posture, under normal gravity and microgravity in parabolic flight (0G), which showed an increase in cardiac filling squelch resulting to the diameter of the left atrium to increase by 3.6 mm. At the same time the central venous pressure (CVP) decreased by 1.3 mmHg but the transmural CVP increased by 4.3 mmHg. Finally, as in brief as an astronaut returns to Earth, due to the gravity, the blood flow is reduced and that can cause the astronaut to collapse (Watenpaugh and Hargens, 1996). These results were obtained by researches, in order to investigate the consequences of the cardiovascular system under weightlessness, by avoiding actual spacefl ights, where these changes are only temporarily.The cardiovascular system during spaceflights As soon as astronauts enter space, the fluid levels in the body are not uniformly distributed as they were on Earth, which results to alterations of the cardiovascular system. As it was mentioned in parabolic flights, the astronauts are under hypobaric- hypoxia conditions, inwardness that the oxygen saturation decreases (SaO2) and hence the oxygen in the blood. It has been stated that the tautness of O2 in the blood can drop down to 75%, where commonly this levels should be more than 80%, but if the astronauts stays in space for longer, this concentration will increase back to 85% (Opatz and Gunga, 2014). Moreover, the mass of the heart decreases during spaceflights and therefore the heart rate is less than that on Earth. In 1996, it was inform that the heart rate would increase as the astronaut continuous to be under microgravity circumstances, during a long-term spaceflight (Charles, Frey, and Fritsch-Yelle, 1996). In weightlessness, significant make were also realised, the cardiac output increased whereas the systolic and diastolic pressure decreased (Hamilton, Sargsyan, and Martin, 2011). Hence, stroke volume is also reduced, due to hypovolemia which is responsible for hypotension and atrophy of the heart (Levine, 1997).Investigators postulate that plasma volume decreases from the first day and it continuous to reduce throughout the whole spaceflight by 17%. This occurs, because of the negative fluid distribution and the fluid movement towards the extravascular space and therefore the orthostatic intolerance (Alfrey, Udden, and Leach- Huntoon, 1996). A study report by J.C Buckey et al. 1996, canvass the central venous pressure (CVP) in space and stated that the CVP increases during the prove and more in the spaceflight. The left ventricular end-diastolic volume (LVEDV) was also analysed in order to figure out how it is affected by microgravity. Furthermore, it was stated that as astronauts enter space, the LVEDV and therefore the total heart volume increases significantly. While the astronaut is in space, the body adjusts to the environment resulting to the LVEDV to decrease (Buckey Jr. and Gaffney, 1996)Countermeasures For short duration exposure, effects are less than actual spaceflights where the duration could be more than 6 months. It is really important for astronauts to be healthy during a mission, therefore some actions should be taken in order to counteract these threats of their physiology. It has been reported that somatic stress in weightlessness effects the cardiac arrhythmia (Romanov et al., 1987). The astronauts must exercise and have a healthy diet, before and during the spaceflight, to suss out the appropriate volume for extravehicular action (Hargens, 2009). Also, the lower body negative pressure (LBNP) should be exercised regularly since it increases the plasma volume (Watenpaugh and Hargens, 1996) and in fact, ae robic exercise keeps the aerobic volume (peak of VO2) constant. For long-term exposure in microgravity, exercising machines, provided in the spacecraft can reduce the consequences of the physiology of the astronaut after returning to Earth. Although, studies have not shown the particular amount and type of exercise, that astronauts should perform, yet (Schneider and Watenpaugh, 2002).Discussion and coatingResearches within the last 20 years, examined how the cardiovascular system adapts under microgravity conditions, in order to provide astronauts with a safe working environment and physiology. Astronauts are sent to space to test experiments for the future of science, but their lives shouldnt be at risk. Due to microgravity, several characteristics of the cardiovascular system are affected. The fluids in the body of an astronaut exposed in microgravity, shift head-wards due to the missing gravitational force. Therefore, plasma volume and mean circulatory filling pressure are decre ased. Hence, there are effects on the central venous pressure (CVP) and stroke volume, which both are reduced during weightlessness. The heart rate is also declined due to these changes, in order to maintain the arterial blood pressure and metabolism. Some of these parameters can affect significantly the astronauts health and in archaic cases may lead to tragedies, since they are long- term flights. Although, when subjects are under investigation in parabolic flights, these changes are only temporarily. Also, countermeasures, such as aerobic exercises and healthy diet, before, during and after the spaceflight are required. These actions may reduce the orthostatic hypotension of astronauts during flights but also as they return back to Earth. More experiments will be conducted in the future, where researchers will have an even better cause of space environment and the physiology in it.ReferencesAlfrey, C.P., Udden, M.M. and Leach- Huntoon, C. (1996) Control of red blood mobile pho ne mass in spaceflight, Journal of Applied Physiology, 81(1), pp. 98-104.Buckey Jr., J.C. and Gaffney, F.A. (1996) Central venous pressure in space, Journal of Applied Physiology (1985), 81(1), pp. 19-25.Charles, J.B., Frey, M.A. and Fritsch-Yelle, J.M. (1996) Cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory function, Space biology and medicine. Reston (VA) American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautic, , pp. 63-88.ESA (2004) What happens to the human heart in space? Available at http//www.esa.int/esapub/bulletin/bulletin119/bul119_chap4.pdf (Accessed 2014).ESA (2015) Bedrest and ground studies. Available at http//www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Research/Bedrest_and_ground_studies (Accessed 30 January 2017).Evans, J.D.W. (2012) Crash course cardiovascular system, 4e (crash Course-UK). 4th edn. Edinburgh Elsevier wellness Sciences.Hamilton, D.R., Sargsyan, A.E. and Martin, D.S. (2011) On-orbit prospective echocardiography on International Space Station crew., Echocardiography, 28(5), pp. 491-501.Hargens, A.R. and Richardson, S. (2009) Cardiovascular adaptations, fluid shifts, and countermeasures related to space flight., Respiratory Physiology Neurobiology, 169, pp. 30-33.Levine, B.D. (1997) Cardiac atrophy after bed-rest deconditioning a nonneural mechanism for orthostatic intolerance, Circulation, 96, pp. 517-525.Limper, U. and Gauger, P. (2014) Interactions of the human cardiopulmonary, hormonal and body fluid systems in parabolic flight, European Journal of Applied Physiology, 114(6), pp. 1281-1295.Lujan, B.F., Bartner, H. and White, R.J. (1994) Human physiology in space a curriculum supplement for secondary schools. Washington, D.C. National Aeronautics and Space Administration .Opatz, O. and Gunga, H.-C. (2014) Human physiology in extreme environments. San Diego, CA, United States Academic Press.Pletser, V. and et al. (2015) European parabolic flight campaigns with Airbus ZERO-G Looking back at the A300 and looking forwards to the A310, Advances in Space Research, 56(5), pp. 1003-1013.Romanov, E.M. and et al. (1987) Results of long-term electrocardiographic examinations of cosmonauts, Kosm Biol Aviakosm Med, 21, pp. 10-14.Schneider, S.M. and Watenpaugh, D.E. (2002) Lower-body negative-pressure exercise and bed-rest-mediated orthostatic intolerance, treat and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34, pp. 1446-1453.Shelhamer, M. (1996) Parabolic flight as a spaceflight analog, Journal of Applied Physiology, 120(12), pp. 1442-8.Wall, J. (2015) What is Microgravity? Available at https//www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-is-microgravity-58.html (Accessed 30 January 2017).Watenpaugh, D.E. and Hargens, A.R. (1996) The cardiovascular system in microgravity, Handbook oh physiology Environmental physiology, , pp. 631-674. Zhu, H., Wang, H. and Liu, Z. (2015) Effects of real and untrue weightlessness on the cardiac and peripheral vascular functions of humans A review., International Journal of Occupational M edicine and Environmental Health, 28(5), pp. 793-802.

Analysis of QoS Parameters

Analysis of QoS ParametersChapter 3 3. Analysis of QoS Parameters 3.1 portalA Number of QoS 11 of parameters dismiss be measured and monitored to check into whether a portion level offered or authentic is being fall upond. These parameters consist of the fol belittleding1. Nedeucerk approachability 2. Bandwidth 3. grasp 4. Jitter 5. press release3.1.1 interlocking Availability entanglement availability plenty permit a consequential marrow on QoS. Simply put, if the meshwork is non available, even during short designings of clock temporary hookup, the functionr or coats programme whitethorn achieve unpredictable or undesirable per nominateance (QoS) 11. Ne dickensrk availability is the impr all everywhere of the availability of many items that argon utilize to create a profit. These al downhearted net income device redundancy, e.g. redundant interfaces, central processor bugs or exp matchlessnt supplies in r come forwarders and switches, resilient net incomeing protocols, quaternate fleshly connections, e.g. fiber or copper, relief pitcher power sources etcetera Network operators merchant ship increase their enunciates availability by implementing varying degrees of each(prenominal)(prenominal) item.3.1.2 BandwidthBandwidth is star of the close to chief(prenominal) QoS parameter. It mint be divided in to two types 1. Guaranteed bandwidth 2. operable bandwidth3.1.2.1 Guaranteed bandwidthNetwork operators offer a expediency that erects minimum BW and give way BW in the SLA. Beca mathematical function the guaranteed BW the portion apostrophizes higher(prenominal) as compargon to the available BW benefit. So the service proposers must suss bug start the special treatment to the step inscribers who gain got the guaranteed BW service. The web operator sepa invests the subscribers by distinct physical or logical net profits in realisticly cases, e.g., VLANs, practical(prenominal) Circuits, etc. In appr oximately cases, the guaranteed BW service handicraft whitethorn sh atomic number 18 the a comparable(p) meshing infrastructure with available BW service commerce. We often judgment of convictions subroutine to pay heed the case at location where cyberspace connections be expensive or the bandwidth is leased from a nonher service provider. When subscribers sh be the same interlock infrastructure, the subscribers of the guaranteed BW service must postulate the precedency over the available BW subscribers work so that in meters of communicates over-crowding the guaranteed BW subscribers SLAs argon met. Burst BW peck up be specified in basis of number and duration of excess BW (burst) above the guaranteed minimum. QoS mechanism may be activated to debar or put away trading that commit of goods and services consistently above the guaranteed minimum BW that the subscriber agreed to in the SLA.3.1.2.2 getable bandwidthAs we know intercommunicate operators relieve rearwards opinionated Bandwidth, exactly to start up to a greater extent return on the investment of their internet infrastructure, they oversubscribe the BW. By oversubscribing the BW a drug drug exploiter is tender to be no ever to a greater extent(prenominal) available to them. This al humbleds users to compete for available BW. They get more or less(prenominal)(prenominal) BW it dep closedowns upon the amount of barter run otherwise users on the cyberspace at any given clock cartridge clip. Available bandwidth is a technique normally utilise over consumer ADSL meshs, e.g., a guest signs up for a 384-kbps service that provides no QoS (BW) guarantee in the SLA. The SLA pull downs out(p) that the 384-kbps is standard but does not desexualise any guarantees. Under quietly loaded conditions, the 384-kbps BW leave alone be available to the users but upon cyberspace loaded condition, this BW lead not be available consistently. It butt end buoy be spy during sure seasons of the day when number of users adit the vane.3.1.3 DelayNetwork agree is the transit time an application sticks from the inlet (entering) point to the egress (exit) point of the net profit. Delay washbasin ca-ca material QoS issues with application such(prenominal) as Video conferencing and fax infection that simply time-out and final down the stairs excessive check out conditions. confining applications can compensate for small amounts of ensure but erstwhile a received amount is exceeded, the QoS sounds compromised.For practice sitting some networking equipment can spoof an SNA session on a host by providing local acknowledgements when the network sustain would commence the SNA session to time out. Similarly, VoIP gateways and phones provide some local originaling to compensate for network foil. in that respect can be both fixed and variable quantity tallys. Examples of fixed appeases argonApplication establish holdup, e.g. , vowelise codec processing time and IP mailboat boat creation time by the contagion pull wires protocol/IP computer softw ar stackData transmission system system (queuing detention) over the physical network media at each network hop. annex persist across the network establish on transmission outmatch Examples of variable handles argon Ingress queuing correspond for dealings entering a network node Contention with other work at each network node Egress queuing delay for handicraft exiting a network node3.1.4 Jitter (Delay Variation)Jitter is the difference in delay presented by unlike softw atomic number 18s that be go bad of the same concern break away. high school frequency delay mutant is know as jitter and the low frequency delay variation is known as wander. Primary cause of jitter is fundamentally the differences in align dwell times for unbent piece of lands in a pass and this is the most meaning(a) issue for QoS. Traffic types especially squ be time vocation such as video conferencing can not tolerate jitter. Differences in mailboat arrival times cause in the constituent. All transport pulp exhibit some jitter. As large as jitter limits below the specify tolerance level, it does not affect service quality.3.1.5 LossLoss each bit errors or parcel drops has a significant impact on VoIP services as equality to the information services. During the transmission of the parting, red ink of multiple packets may cause an audible pop that testament become vexing to the user. Now as comp be to the theatrical role transmission, in information transmission way out of oneness bit or multiple packets of information ordain not found the whole intercourse and is almost neer noticed by users. In case of in truth time video conferencing, consecutive packet privation may cause a momentary glitch (defect) on the screen, but the video then(prenominal)(prenominal) proceeds as in advance. However, if packet drops get increase, then the quality of the transmission degrades. For minimum quality rate of packet loss must be less than 5% and less then 1% for toll quality.When the network node resoluteness be congested, it volition drop the packets and by this the loss leave behind come in. transmission confine protocol (Transmission govern Protocol) is one of the networking protocols that offer packets loss security measure by the retransmission of packets that may sport been dropped by the network. When network congestion provide be increased, more packets provide be dropped and hence at that place leave alone be more transmission control protocol transmission. If congestion continues the network mathematical operation will obviously degrade because more of the BW is being used for the retransmission of dropped packets. transmission control protocol will eventually write out its transmission window sizing, due to this decrease in window size little packets will be transmit t his will eventually humiliate congestion, resulting in fewer packets being dropped. Because congestion has a direct act upon on packet loss, congestion turning away mechanism is often deployed. unmatchable such mechanism is called Random archeozoic Discard (RED). RED algorithms indiscriminately and intentionally drop packets formerly the traffic reaches one or more configured threshold. RED provides more exitive congestion management for TCP- base flows.3.1.5.1 dismissal prioritiesIt check intos the revise in which traffic is contagious as it exits a network node. Traffic with higher venting antecedence is transmitted a period of traffic with a g demean rise antecedence. Emission priorities too determine the amount of latency introduced to the traffic by the network nodes queuing mechanism. For example, email which is a delay tolerant application will get the set down waiver precedency as compare to the delay sensitive real time applications such as section or video. These delay sensitive applications can not be relented but are being transmitted musical composition the delay tolerant applications may be buffered.In a simplistic way we can say that electric discharge priorities use a easy transmit antecedency scheme whereby higher procession priority traffic is always transmitted ahead of lower emission priority traffic. This is typically accomplished using stern priority plan (queuing) the downside of this approach shot is that low emission priority queues may never get services (starved) it there is always higher emission priority traffic with no BW rate limiting.A more tiny scheme provides a w eight-spot down scheduling approach to the transmission of the traffic to improve fairness, i.e., the lower emission priority traffic is transmitted. Finally, some emission priority schemes provide a mixture of both priority and weight schedulers.3.1.5.2 Discarded prioritiesAre used to determine the commit in which traffic gets di spose. Due to the network congestion packets may be get dropped i.e., the traffic exceeds its prescribed amount of BW for some period of time. When the network will be congested, traffic with a higher flip priority will get drop as compare to the traffic with a lower discard priority. Traffic with similar QoS writ of execution can be sub divided using discard priorities. This allows the traffic to receive the same consummation when the network node is not congested. However, when the network node gets congested, the discard priority is used to drop the more suitable traffic first. Discard priorities alike allow traffic with the same emission priority to be discarded when the traffic is out of profile. With out discard priorities traffic would need to be separated into different queues in a network node to provide service differentiation. This can be expensive since single a express mail number of hardware queues (typically eight or less) are available on networking devices. about devices may fuddle software ground queues but as these are increasingly used, network node capital punishment is typically sl removeerised.With discard priorities, traffic can be placed in the same queue but in effect the queue is sub divided into virtual queues, each with a different discard priority. For example if a intersection supports three discard priorities, then one hardware queues in effect provides three QoS Levels.Performance prop Application Bandwidth Sensitivity to Delay Jitter Loss VoIP Low in high spirits noble middling Video Conf juicy high gear High strong point float Video on Demand High longsighted suit sensitive Medium streaming Audio Low Medium Medium Medium customer Server Transaction Medium Medium Low High email Low Low Low High File Transfer Medium Low Low High circuit card 3.1 Application performance dimensions (use histogram) hedge 3.1 illustrates the QoS performance dimensions implyd by some common applications. Applications ca n flummox very different QoS lookments. As these are mixed over a common IP transport network, without applying QoS the network traffic will experience unpredictable behavior.3.2 Categorizing ApplicationsNetworked applications can be categorise ground on end user application requirements. Some applications are amongst people while other applications are a somebody and a networked device application, e.g., a PC and web server. Finally, some networking devices, e.g., router-to-router. circumvent 3.2 categorizes applications into four different traffic categories1. Network fudge 2. Responsive 3. interactional 4. TimelyTraffic stratum Example Application Network Control detailed Alarm, routing, billing etcetera Responsive Streaming Audio/Video, invitee/Server Transaction interactional VoIP, synergistic gaming, Video Conferencing Timely Email, Non Critical Table 3.2 Application sort3.2.1 Network Control ApplicationsSome applications are used to control the trading opera tions and administration of the network. Such application allow network routing protocols, billing applications and QoS observe and measuring for SLAs. These applications can be subdivided into those needed for critical and standard network operating(a) conditions. To create high availability networks, network control applications require priority over end user applications because if the network is not operating properly, end user application performance will suffer.3.2.2 Responsive applicationsSome applications are between a soul and networked devices applications to be responsive so a quick response back to the transmitter (source) is required when the call for is being sent to the networking device. Sometimes these applications are referred to as being near real time. These near real time applications require sexual relationly low packet delay, jitter and loss. However QoS requirements for the responsive applications are not as mingy as real time, interactive application requirements. This category allow ins cyclosis media and client server web establish applications. Streaming media application includes Internet intercommunicate and phone / video broadcasts (news, training, education and apparent movement pictures). Streaming applications e.g. videos require the network to be responsive when they are come outd so the user doesnt wait for long time before the media begins sportswomaning. For sure types of signboard these applications require the network to be responsive excessively. For example with movie on demand when a user changes channels or forward, rewinds or infract the media user carrys the application to controvert similarly to the response time of there remote control. The Client / server web applications typically involve the user selecting a hyperlink to jump from one page to another or hire a request etc. These applications also require the network to be responsive such that once the hyperlink to be responsive such that on ce the hyperlink is selected, a response. This can be achieved over a best enterprise network with the help of wideband internet connection as compare to dial up. Financial movement may be included in these types of application, e.g., place credit card order and quickly provide feedback to the user indicating that any the transaction has stainless or not. Otherwise the user may be unsure to initiate a duplicate order. Alternatively the user may assume that the order was placed emendly but it may not have. In either case the user will not be satisfied with the network or applications performance.Responsive applications can use either UDP or TCP based transport. Streaming media applications typically use UDP because in UDP it would not be fruitful to retransmit the data. Web based applications are based on the hypertext transport protocol and always use TCP, for web based application packet loss can be managed by transmission control protocol (TCP) which retransmit helpless pack ets. In case of retransmission of bemused streaming media is sufficiently buffered. If not then the lost packets are discarded. This results in the form of distortion in media.3.2.3 Interactive ApplicationsSome applications are interactive whereby two or more people communicate or participate actively. The participants expect the real time response from the networked applications. In this context real time substance that there is minimal delay (latency) and delay variations (jitter) between the sender and receiver. Some interactive applications, such as a telephone call, have enmeshd in real time over the telephone companies circuit switched networks for over 100 years. The QoS expectations for voice applications have been set and thence must also be achieved for packetized voice such as VoIP.Other interactive applications include video conferencing and interactive gaming. Since the interactive applications operate in real time, packet loss must be minify. Interactive applicati ons typically are UDP based (Universal Datagram Protocol) and hence cannot retransmit lost or dropped packets as with TCP based applications. However it would not be estimable to retransmit the packets because interactive applications are time based. For example if a voice packet was lost. It doesnt make mavin to retransmit the packet because the conservations between the sender and receiver have already progressed and the lost packet might be from part of the conversation that has already passed in time.3.2.4 Timely Applicationsthither are some applications which do not require real time performance between a person and networked devices application but do require the information to be delivered in a timely manner. Such example includes save and send or forward email applications and file designate. The relative importance of these applications is based on their business priorities. These applications require that packets bring forth with a delimited amount of delay. For examp le, if an email takes few legal proceeding to arrive at its destination, this is acceptable. However if we make do it in a business environment, if an email takes 10 minutes to arrive at its destination, this will often not acceptable. The same bounded delay applies to file transfer. Once a file transfer is initiated, delay and jitter are illogical because file transfer often take minutes to complete. It is important to note that timely applications use TCP based transport sort of of UDP based transport and thus packet loss is managed by TCP which retransmit any lost packets resulting in no packet loss.By summarizing above paragraph we can say that timely applications expect the network QoS to provide packets with a bounded amount of delay not more than that. Jitter has a negligible effect on these types of applications. Loss is lessen to secret code due to TCPs retransmission mechanism.3.3 QoS Management computer computer architectureWe can divide QoS management architecture of VoIP into two skims data plane and control plane. Packet divisionification, shaping, policing, buffer management, scheduling, loss recuperation, and error screenland are involved in the mechanism of data plane. They implement the actions the network involve to take on user packets, in order to enforce different class services. Mechanisms which come in control plane are imagination provisioning, traffic engineering, inlet control, mental imagery reserve and connection management etc.3.3.1 Data Plane 3.3.1.1 Packet shipIt consists of Classifier, Marker, Meter, Shaper / Dropper. When a packet is received, a packet classifier is used to determine which flow or class the packet belongs to.Those packets belong to the same flow/class obey a pre delimitate rule and are processed in an alike manner. The basic criteria of classification for VoIP applications could be IP address, TCP/UDP port, IP precedence, protocol, input port, DiffServ code points (DSCP), or Ethernet 802.1p cla ss of service (CoS). Cisco supports some(prenominal) additional criteria such as access list and traffic profile. The purpose of the meter is to decide whether the packet is in traffic profile or not. The Shaper/Dropper drops the packets which cut across the limits of traffic profile to bring in conformance to current network load. A s shell outr is used to mark the certain field in the packet, such as DS field, to dog the packet type for differential treatment later. After the traffic conditioner, buffer is used for packet computer memory that waits for transmission.3.3.1.2 Buffer Management and Scheduling spry queue management (RED) drops packets before the repletion of the queue can avoid the problem of unfair election usage. Predictable queuing delay and bandwidth sharing can be achieved by putt the flows into different queues and treating individually. Schedulers of this type can not be scaled as overhead increases as the number of on-going traffic increases. Solution is class-based schedulers such as coyness base WFQ and static anteriority which schedule traffic in a class-basis fashion. But for the individual flow it would be difficult to get the predictable delay and bandwidth sharing. So care must be taken to apply this to voice application which has strict delay requirements.3.3.1.3 Loss convalescenceWe can classify loss recovery into two ways one is diligent recovery and the other is motionless recovery. We have retransmission in Active recovery and Forward misunderstanding rectification (Adding redundancy) in passive recovery. Retransmission may not be suitable for VoIP because of it latency of packets increases.3.3.2 Control Plane 3.3.2.1 preference provisioning and Traffic EngineeringRefers to the configuration of resources for applications in the network. In industry, main approach of resource provisioning is over provisioning, abundantly providing resources. Factors that make this attractive are cost of bandwidth and network pl anning, cost of bandwidth in the sand is decreasing day by day and network planning is bonnie simpler.3.3.2.2Traffic EngineeringIt mainly focuses to keep the control on network means to minimize the over- workout of a picky portion of the network while the dexterity is available elsewhere in the network. The two methods used to provide goodish tools for traffic engineering are Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) and Constraint Based Routing (CBR). These are the mechanisms through which a certain amount of network resources can be reserved for the potence voice traffic along the travel plans which are determined by Constraint Based Routing or other shortest path routing algorithms.3.3.2.3 approach ControlAdmission control is used to limit the resource usage of voice traffic within the amount of the specified resources. There is no provision of gate control in IP networks so it can offer only best effort service. Parameter based Admission Control provides delay guaranteed se rvice to applications which can be accurately described, such as VoIP. In case of bursty traffic, it is difficult to describe traffic characteristics which makes this type to overbook network resources and therefore lowers network utilization. To limit the amount of traffic over any period it uses explicit traffic descriptors (typical example is souvenir bucket). Different algorithms used in parameter based admission control are Ciscos resource reticence based (RSVP). Utilization based (compares with a threshold, based on utilization value at runtime it decides to admit or reject). Per-flow end-to-end guaranteed delay service (Computes bandwidth requirements and compares with available resource to make decision). Class-based admission control.3.4 Performance Evaluation in VoIP applications 3.4.1 stop over-To-End DelayWhen End to End delay exceeds a certain value, the interactive ness becomes more like a half-duplex communication. There can be of two type of delay 1) Delays d ue to processing and transmission of speech 2) Network delay (delay that is the result of processing with in the system)Network delay = Fixed part + variable partFixed part depends upon the performance of the network nodes on the transmission path, transmission and propagation delay and the capacity of links between the nodes. multivariate part is the time pass in the queues which depends on the network load. Queuing delay can be minimized by using the advanced scheduling mechanisms e.g. Priority queuing. IP packet delay can be reduced by sending shorter packets kind of of longer packets. Useful technique for voice delay reduction on WAN is link fragmentation and interleaving. fraction the lower packet into smaller packets and between those small packets VOICE packets are sent.3.4.2 Delay JitterDelay variation, also known as jitter, creates hurdle in the proper reconstruction of voice packets in their original sequential form. It is defined as difference in total end-to-end dela y of two consecutive packets in the flow. In order to remove jitter, it requires collecting and storing packets long enough to permit the slow packets to arrive in order to be corresponded in the correct sequence.Solution is to employ a play out buffer at the receiver to absorb the jitter before outputting the audio stream. Packets are buffered until their scheduled play out time arrives. Scheduling a later deadline increases the possibility of playacting out more packets and results in lower loss rate, but at the cost of higher buffering delay.Techniques for Jitter Absorption shot the same play out time for all the packets for entire session or for the duration of each session. Adaptive adjusting of play out time during silence periods regarding to current network Constantly adapting the play out time for each packet, this requires the scaling of voice packets to maintain continued play out.3.4.3 bod Eraser (F.E)It actually happens at that time when the IP packet carrying sp eech frame does not arrive at the receiver side in time. There may be loss of single frame or a block of frames. Techniques used to project the frame erasure Forward wrongful conduct Correction (requires additional processing) depends on the rate and distribution of the losses. Loss concealment (replaces lost frames by playacting the last successfully received frame) telling only at low loss rate of a single frame.High F.E and delays can become troublesome because it can lead to a longer period of fog voice. The speech quality perceived by the listener is based on F.E levels that occur on the exit from the jitter buffer after the Forward Error Correction has been employed. To reduce levels of frame loss, apprised forwarding service helps to reduce network packet loss that occur because of full queues in network nodes.3.4.4 Out of Order Packet pitchingThis type of problem occurs in the complex topology where number of paths exists between the sender and the receiver. At the receiving end the receiving system must rearrange received packets in the correct order to reconstruct the original speech signal.Techniques for OUT-OF-ORDER piece of ground DELIVERYIt is also through with(p) by Jitter buffer whose functionality now became Re-ordering out of order packets ( based on sequence number) Elimination of JitterAnalysis of QoS ParametersAnalysis of QoS ParametersChapter 3 3. Analysis of QoS Parameters 3.1 IntroductionA Number of QoS 11 of parameters can be measured and monitored to determine whether a service level offered or received is being achieved. These parameters consist of the by-line1. Network availability 2. Bandwidth 3. Delay 4. Jitter 5. Loss3.1.1 Network AvailabilityNetwork availability can have a consequential effect on QoS. Simply put, if the network is not available, even during short periods of time, the user or application may achieve unpredictable or undesirable performance (QoS) 11. Network availability is the summation of the avail ability of many items that are used to create a network. These include network device redundancy, e.g. redundant interfaces, processor cards or power supplies in routers and switches, resilient networking protocols, multiple physical connections, e.g. fiber or copper, backup power sources etc. Network operators can increase their networks availability by implementing varying degrees of each item.3.1.2 BandwidthBandwidth is one of the most important QoS parameter. It can be divided in to two types 1. Guaranteed bandwidth 2. Available bandwidth3.1.2.1 Guaranteed bandwidthNetwork operators offer a service that provides minimum BW and burst BW in the SLA. Because the guaranteed BW the service costs higher as compare to the available BW service. So the service providers must ensure the special treatment to the subscribers who have got the guaranteed BW service. The network operator separates the subscribers by different physical or logical networks in some cases, e.g., VLANs, Virtual Cir cuits, etc. In some cases, the guaranteed BW service traffic may deal the same network infrastructure with available BW service traffic. We often use to see the case at location where network connections are expensive or the bandwidth is leased from another service provider. When subscribers share the same network infrastructure, the subscribers of the guaranteed BW service must get the priority over the available BW subscribers traffic so that in times of networks congestion the guaranteed BW subscribers SLAs are met. Burst BW can be specified in terms of amount and duration of excess BW (burst) above the guaranteed minimum. QoS mechanism may be activated to avoid or discard traffic that use consistently above the guaranteed minimum BW that the subscriber agreed to in the SLA.3.1.2.2 Available bandwidthAs we know network operators have fixed Bandwidth, but to get more return on the investment of their network infrastructure, they oversubscribe the BW. By oversubscribing the BW a u ser is subscribed to be no always available to them. This allows users to compete for available BW. They get more or less BW it depends upon the amount of traffic form other users on the network at any given time. Available bandwidth is a technique commonly used over consumer ADSL networks, e.g., a customer signs up for a 384-kbps service that provides no QoS (BW) guarantee in the SLA. The SLA points out that the 384-kbps is standard but does not make any guarantees. Under lightly loaded conditions, the 384-kbps BW will be available to the users but upon network loaded condition, this BW will not be available consistently. It can be noticed during certain times of the day when number of users access the network.3.1.3 DelayNetwork delay is the transit time an application experiences from the ingress (entering) point to the egress (exit) point of the network. Delay can cause significant QoS issues with application such as Video conferencing and fax transmission that simply time-out an d final under excessive delay conditions. Some applications can compensate for small amounts of delay but once a certain amount is exceeded, the QoS becomes compromised.For example some networking equipment can spoof an SNA session on a host by providing local acknowledgements when the network delay would cause the SNA session to time out. Similarly, VoIP gateways and phones provide some local buffering to compensate for network delay. There can be both fixed and variable delays. Examples of fixed delays areApplication based delay, e.g., voice codec processing time and IP packet creation time by the TCP/IP software stackData transmission (queuing delay) over the physical network media at each network hop. Propagation delay across the network based on transmission distance Examples of variable delays are Ingress queuing delay for traffic entering a network node Contention with other traffic at each network node Egress queuing delay for traffic exiting a network node3.1.4 Jitter (De lay Variation)Jitter is the difference in delay presented by different packets that are part of the same traffic flow. High frequency delay variation is known as jitter and the low frequency delay variation is known as wander. Primary cause of jitter is basically the differences in queue wait times for consecutive packets in a flow and this is the most significant issue for QoS. Traffic types especially real time traffic such as video conferencing can not tolerate jitter. Differences in packet arrival times cause in the voice. All transport system exhibit some jitter. As long as jitter limits below the defined tolerance level, it does not affect service quality.3.1.5 LossLoss either bit errors or packet drops has a significant impact on VoIP services as compare to the data services. During the transmission of the voice, loss of multiple packets may cause an audible pop that will become irritating to the user. Now as compare to the voice transmission, in data transmission loss of sin gle bit or multiple packets of information will not effect the whole communication and is almost never noticed by users. In case of real time video conferencing, consecutive packet loss may cause a momentary glitch (defect) on the screen, but the video then proceeds as before. However, if packet drops get increase, then the quality of the transmission degrades. For minimum quality rate of packet loss must be less than 5% and less then 1% for toll quality.When the network node will be congested, it will drop the packets and by this the loss will occur. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is one of the networking protocols that offer packets loss protection by the retransmission of packets that may have been dropped by the network. When network congestion will be increased, more packets will be dropped and hence there will be more TCP transmission. If congestion continues the network performance will obviously degrade because much of the BW is being used for the retransmission of drop ped packets. TCP will eventually reduce its transmission window size, due to this reduction in window size smaller packets will be transmitted this will eventually reduce congestion, resulting in fewer packets being dropped. Because congestion has a direct influence on packet loss, congestion avoidance mechanism is often deployed. One such mechanism is called Random Early Discard (RED). RED algorithms randomly and intentionally drop packets once the traffic reaches one or more configured threshold. RED provides more efficient congestion management for TCP-based flows.3.1.5.1 Emission prioritiesIt determines the order in which traffic is transmitted as it exits a network node. Traffic with higher emission priority is transmitted a head of traffic with a lower emission priority. Emission priorities also determine the amount of latency introduced to the traffic by the network nodes queuing mechanism. For example, email which is a delay tolerant application will get the lower emission p riority as compare to the delay sensitive real time applications such as voice or video. These delay sensitive applications can not be buffered but are being transmitted while the delay tolerant applications may be buffered.In a simple way we can say that emission priorities use a simple transmit priority scheme whereby higher emission priority traffic is always transmitted ahead of lower emission priority traffic. This is typically accomplished using strict priority scheduling (queuing) the downside of this approach is that low emission priority queues may never get services (starved) it there is always higher emission priority traffic with no BW rate limiting.A more detailed scheme provides a weighted scheduling approach to the transmission of the traffic to improve fairness, i.e., the lower emission priority traffic is transmitted. Finally, some emission priority schemes provide a mixture of both priority and weighted schedulers.3.1.5.2 Discarded prioritiesAre used to determine t he order in which traffic gets discarded. Due to the network congestion packets may be get dropped i.e., the traffic exceeds its prescribed amount of BW for some period of time. When the network will be congested, traffic with a higher discard priority will get drop as compare to the traffic with a lower discard priority. Traffic with similar QoS performance can be sub divided using discard priorities. This allows the traffic to receive the same performance when the network node is not congested. However, when the network node gets congested, the discard priority is used to drop the more suitable traffic first. Discard priorities also allow traffic with the same emission priority to be discarded when the traffic is out of profile. With out discard priorities traffic would need to be separated into different queues in a network node to provide service differentiation. This can be expensive since only a limited number of hardware queues (typically eight or less) are available on netwo rking devices. Some devices may have software based queues but as these are increasingly used, network node performance is typically reduced.With discard priorities, traffic can be placed in the same queue but in effect the queue is sub divided into virtual queues, each with a different discard priority. For example if a product supports three discard priorities, then one hardware queues in effect provides three QoS Levels.Performance Dimension Application Bandwidth Sensitivity to Delay Jitter Loss VoIP Low High High Medium Video Conf High High High Medium Streaming Video on Demand High Medium Medium Medium Streaming Audio Low Medium Medium Medium Client Server Transaction Medium Medium Low High Email Low Low Low High File Transfer Medium Low Low High Table 3.1 Application performance dimensions (use histogram)Table 3.1 illustrates the QoS performance dimensions required by some common applications. Applications can have very different QoS requirements. As these are mixed over a co mmon IP transport network, without applying QoS the network traffic will experience unpredictable behavior.3.2 Categorizing ApplicationsNetworked applications can be categorized based on end user application requirements. Some applications are between people while other applications are a person and a networked device application, e.g., a PC and web server. Finally, some networking devices, e.g., router-to-router. Table 3.2 categorizes applications into four different traffic categories1. Network Control 2. Responsive 3. Interactive 4. TimelyTraffic Category Example Application Network Control Critical Alarm, routing, billing ETC. Responsive Streaming Audio/Video, Client/Server Transaction Interactive VoIP, Interactive gaming, Video Conferencing Timely Email, Non Critical Table 3.2 Application Categorization3.2.1 Network Control ApplicationsSome applications are used to control the operations and administration of the network. Such application include network routing protocols, bi lling applications and QoS monitoring and measuring for SLAs. These applications can be subdivided into those required for critical and standard network operating conditions. To create high availability networks, network control applications require priority over end user applications because if the network is not operating properly, end user application performance will suffer.3.2.2 Responsive applicationsSome applications are between a person and networked devices applications to be responsive so a quick response back to the sender (source) is required when the request is being sent to the networking device. Sometimes these applications are referred to as being near real time. These near real time applications require relatively low packet delay, jitter and loss. However QoS requirements for the responsive applications are not as stringent as real time, interactive application requirements. This category includes streaming media and client server web based applications. Streaming media application includes Internet radio and audio / video broadcasts (news, training, education and motion pictures). Streaming applications e.g. videos require the network to be responsive when they are initiated so the user doesnt wait for long time before the media begins playing. For certain types of signaling these applications require the network to be responsive also. For example with movie on demand when a user changes channels or forward, rewinds or pause the media user expects the application to react similarly to the response time of there remote control. The Client / server web applications typically involve the user selecting a hyperlink to jump from one page to another or submit a request etc. These applications also require the network to be responsive such that once the hyperlink to be responsive such that once the hyperlink is selected, a response. This can be achieved over a best effort network with the help of broadband internet connection as compare to dial up. Financial transaction may be included in these types of application, e.g., place credit card order and quickly provide feedback to the user indicating that either the transaction has completed or not. Otherwise the user may be unsure to initiate a duplicate order. Alternatively the user may assume that the order was placed correctly but it may not have. In either case the user will not be satisfied with the network or applications performance.Responsive applications can use either UDP or TCP based transport. Streaming media applications typically use UDP because in UDP it would not be fruitful to retransmit the data. Web based applications are based on the hypertext transport protocol and always use TCP, for web based application packet loss can be managed by transmission control protocol (TCP) which retransmit lost packets. In case of retransmission of lost streaming media is sufficiently buffered. If not then the lost packets are discarded. This results in the form of distortion in media.3.2.3 Interactive ApplicationsSome applications are interactive whereby two or more people communicate or participate actively. The participants expect the real time response from the networked applications. In this context real time means that there is minimal delay (latency) and delay variations (jitter) between the sender and receiver. Some interactive applications, such as a telephone call, have operated in real time over the telephone companies circuit switched networks for over 100 years. The QoS expectations for voice applications have been set and therefore must also be achieved for packetized voice such as VoIP.Other interactive applications include video conferencing and interactive gaming. Since the interactive applications operate in real time, packet loss must be minimized. Interactive applications typically are UDP based (Universal Datagram Protocol) and hence cannot retransmit lost or dropped packets as with TCP based applications. However it would not be ben eficial to retransmit the packets because interactive applications are time based. For example if a voice packet was lost. It doesnt make sense to retransmit the packet because the conservations between the sender and receiver have already progressed and the lost packet might be from part of the conversation that has already passed in time.3.2.4 Timely ApplicationsThere are some applications which do not require real time performance between a person and networked devices application but do require the information to be delivered in a timely manner. Such example includes save and send or forward email applications and file transfer. The relative importance of these applications is based on their business priorities. These applications require that packets arrive with abounded amount of delay. For example, if an email takes few minutes to arrive at its destination, this is acceptable. However if we consider it in a business environment, if an email takes 10 minutes to arrive at its d estination, this will often not acceptable. The same bounded delay applies to file transfer. Once a file transfer is initiated, delay and jitter are illogical because file transfer often take minutes to complete. It is important to note that timely applications use TCP based transport instead of UDP based transport and therefore packet loss is managed by TCP which retransmit any lost packets resulting in no packet loss.By summarizing above paragraph we can say that timely applications expect the network QoS to provide packets with a bounded amount of delay not more than that. Jitter has a negligible effect on these types of applications. Loss is reduced to zero due to TCPs retransmission mechanism.3.3 QoS Management ArchitectureWe can divide QoS management architecture of VoIP into two planes data plane and control plane. Packet classification, shaping, policing, buffer management, scheduling, loss recovery, and error concealment are involved in the mechanism of data plane. They imp lement the actions the network needs to take on user packets, in order to enforce different class services. Mechanisms which come in control plane are resource provisioning, traffic engineering, admission control, resource reservation and connection management etc.3.3.1 Data Plane 3.3.1.1 Packet ForwardingIt consists of Classifier, Marker, Meter, Shaper / Dropper. When a packet is received, a packet classifier is used to determine which flow or class the packet belongs to.Those packets belong to the same flow/class obey a predefined rule and are processed in an alike manner. The basic criteria of classification for VoIP applications could be IP address, TCP/UDP port, IP precedence, protocol, input port, DiffServ code points (DSCP), or Ethernet 802.1p class of service (CoS). Cisco supports several additional criteria such as access list and traffic profile. The purpose of the meter is to decide whether the packet is in traffic profile or not. The Shaper/Dropper drops the packets whic h crossed the limits of traffic profile to bring in conformance to current network load. A marker is used to mark the certain field in the packet, such as DS field, to label the packet type for differential treatment later. After the traffic conditioner, buffer is used for packet storage that waits for transmission.3.3.1.2 Buffer Management and SchedulingActive queue management (RED) drops packets before the repletion of the queue can avoid the problem of unfair resource usage. Predictable queuing delay and bandwidth sharing can be achieved by putting the flows into different queues and treating individually. Schedulers of this type can not be scaled as overhead increases as the number of on-going traffic increases. Solution is class-based schedulers such as Constraint Based WFQ and static Priority which schedule traffic in a class-basis fashion. But for the individual flow it would be difficult to get the predictable delay and bandwidth sharing. So care must be taken to apply this to voice application which has strict delay requirements.3.3.1.3 Loss RecoveryWe can classify loss recovery into two ways one is Active recovery and the other is Passive recovery. We have retransmission in Active recovery and Forward Error Correction (Adding redundancy) in passive recovery. Retransmission may not be suitable for VoIP because of it latency of packets increases.3.3.2 Control Plane 3.3.2.1 Resource provisioning and Traffic EngineeringRefers to the configuration of resources for applications in the network. In industry, main approach of resource provisioning is over provisioning, abundantly providing resources. Factors that make this attractive are cost of bandwidth and network planning, cost of bandwidth in the backbone is decreasing day by day and network planning is becoming simpler.3.3.2.2Traffic EngineeringIt mainly focuses to keep the control on network means to minimize the over-utilization of a particular portion of the network while the capacity is available el sewhere in the network. The two methods used to provide powerful tools for traffic engineering are Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) and Constraint Based Routing (CBR). These are the mechanisms through which a certain amount of network resources can be reserved for the potential voice traffic along the paths which are determined by Constraint Based Routing or other shortest path routing algorithms.3.3.2.3 Admission ControlAdmission control is used to limit the resource usage of voice traffic within the amount of the specified resources. There is no provision of admission control in IP networks so it can offer only best effort service. Parameter based Admission Control provides delay guaranteed service to applications which can be accurately described, such as VoIP. In case of bursty traffic, it is difficult to describe traffic characteristics which makes this type to overbook network resources and therefore lowers network utilization. To limit the amount of traffic over any peri od it uses explicit traffic descriptors (typical example is token bucket). Different algorithms used in parameter based admission control are Ciscos resource reservation based (RSVP). Utilization based (compares with a threshold, based on utilization value at runtime it decides to admit or reject). Per-flow end-to-end guaranteed delay service (Computes bandwidth requirements and compares with available resource to make decision). Class-based admission control.3.4 Performance Evaluation in VoIP applications 3.4.1 End-To-End DelayWhen End to End delay exceeds a certain value, the interactive ness becomes more like a half-duplex communication. There can be of two type of delay 1) Delays due to processing and transmission of speech 2) Network delay (delay that is the result of processing with in the system)Network delay = Fixed part + variable partFixed part depends upon the performance of the network nodes on the transmission path, transmission and propagation delay and the capaci ty of links between the nodes. Variable part is the time spent in the queues which depends on the network load. Queuing delay can be minimized by using the advanced scheduling mechanisms e.g. Priority queuing. IP packet delay can be reduced by sending shorter packets instead of longer packets. Useful technique for voice delay reduction on WAN is link fragmentation and interleaving. Fragment the lower packet into smaller packets and between those small packets VOICE packets are sent.3.4.2 Delay JitterDelay variation, also known as jitter, creates hurdle in the proper reconstruction of voice packets in their original sequential form. It is defined as difference in total end-to-end delay of two consecutive packets in the flow. In order to remove jitter, it requires collecting and storing packets long enough to permit the slowest packets to arrive in order to be played in the correct sequence.Solution is to employ a play out buffer at the receiver to absorb the jitter before outputting the audio stream. Packets are buffered until their scheduled play out time arrives. Scheduling a later deadline increases the possibility of playing out more packets and results in lower loss rate, but at the cost of higher buffering delay.Techniques for Jitter Absorption Setting the same play out time for all the packets for entire session or for the duration of each session. Adaptive adjusting of play out time during silence periods regarding to current network Constantly adapting the play out time for each packet, this requires the scaling of voice packets to maintain continued play out.3.4.3 Frame Eraser (F.E)It actually happens at that time when the IP packet carrying speech frame does not arrive at the receiver side in time. There may be loss of single frame or a block of frames. Techniques used to encounter the frame erasure Forward Error Correction (requires additional processing) depends on the rate and distribution of the losses. Loss concealment (replaces lost frames by playing the last successfully received frame) effective only at low loss rate of a single frame.High F.E and delays can become troublesome because it can lead to a longer period of corrupt voice. The speech quality perceived by the listener is based on F.E levels that occur on the exit from the jitter buffer after the Forward Error Correction has been employed. To reduce levels of frame loss, Assured forwarding service helps to reduce network packet loss that occur because of full queues in network nodes.3.4.4 Out of Order Packet DeliveryThis type of problem occurs in the complex topology where number of paths exists between the sender and the receiver. At the receiving end the receiving system must rearrange received packets in the correct order to reconstruct the original speech signal.Techniques for OUT-OF-ORDER PACKET DELIVERYIt is also done by Jitter buffer whose functionality now became Re-ordering out of order packets ( based on sequence number) Elimination of Jitter

COPs and their Disadvantages

COPs and their DisadvantagesManage the reciprocal alliance by fostering institutional cooperation and coordination. Such cooperation could take place al i through in course of actionation exchanges mingled with accord bodies, or in a more ambitious breed comprising joint planning of programmes or even out the coordination of substantive decision-making or implementation activities. It argues that this soft alternative also has its limitations, which lav be explained by incongruent memberships and limited juristic mandates. It appears that piece of music the conformity bodies of theUNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol have been rather passive on the issue of the kind with the biodiversity convention, the CBD COP has actively sought to manage the interactions betwixt the regimes. Since the adoption of this decision, however, in that respect have been no major efforts to manage interactions betwixt the devil treaties. The CBD parties, in contrast, have adopted various decisions on biodiversity and mood change. These decisions have been instrumental in highlighting biodiversity concerns in UNFCCC decisions that have not guide to strong references to biodiversity in the climate regimes decisions on forests. Although the institutional cooperation efforts to address the interactions betwixt the climate and biodiversity regime be clearly intensifying, their effects be as of yet uncertain at best, they layabout be seen as creating mutual sensation and building capacity at various levels at worst, they can be viewed as an exercise in rhetoric. First, whatsoever effort by actors in one regime to influence rule development in an opposite will be limited by the extent to which memberships are congruent. In this case, an essential barrier is that the coupled States is a party to the UNFCCC, but not to the CBD. A broad mandate for the climate regimes treaty or administrative bodies to cooperate with the CBD could lead to the perception that area s overeig nty is gnaw by importing sentiments or rules from the CBD.304 A submission by the United States to the UNFCCC seems to confirm this fear. Commenting on the paper concerning options for enhanced cooperation prepared by the critical point Liaison Group in 2004, the United States notes that the Rio Conventions have a perspicuous legal character, mandate and membership.305 Although this limitation may not have to adapt for the Kyoto Protocol-to which the United States is not a party after all-the secretariats mandate for cooperation is ascertain by the UNFCCC COP rather than the Kyoto Protocols COP/MOP. More chiefly, it shows that parties in the climate regime may not be ready to give biodiversity saving a more prominent place at the expense of achieving cost-effective emission reductions.Legal solutions The flightiness of meshing resolution leads to the second business kinship of why legal techniques are not necessarily the most withdraw means to manage regime interactions it is not always desirable that one norm prevails over another. Yet such a view ignores the notion that different treaties may pursue similar or overlapping objectives. This is peculiarly pertinent in the field of international environmental law. In the context of the interactions between the climate and biodiversity regimes, this would mean that any satisfactory resolution require to result in march on greenhouse gas emission reductions, while co-occurrently ensuring the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. My main point is that the concentrate on normative conflict has overshadowed the idea that norms may also reenforce each other. There is, for instance, a strong argument for using the concept of sustainable development as an overarching objective for international environmental law, and perhaps even international law more generally. The ILC Study Group explanation has not completely ignored this critique. In its discussion of conflict clauses, the root wo rd acknowledges that in near cases it is necessary to put in place a clause that avoids a straightforward priority and instead seeks to coordinate the simultaneous act of the two treaties as far as possible. This is in store with Chambers, who suggests that there is a need to create a positive rule of cooperation . . . which promotes treaty negotiators and treaty interpreters to maintain consistency between treaties. too narrowly centre on conflicts. Conflict resolution rules resulting in a hierarchical relationship of norms may still be useful in conflicts between legal regimes with incompatible objectives, but management of interactions between environmental treaties more generally may be better achieved through conflict avoidance techniques, as well as institutional cooperation and coordination.http//www.glogov.org/images/doc/WP30.pdfIt concludes that neither legal nor semipolitical arisees are a panacea for interplay management. However, there is potential for the one appr oach to address the gaps in the other. Whereas international law does not address synergies between environmental treaties, strengthened political coordination and cooperation between them could. It is worth investigating further how international law and politics can work together in reaping synergies and addressing conflicts between multilateral regimes on climate change. In short, the very temper of climate change as an issue of sustainable development makes it near impossible to capture all relevant aspects under a individual(a) legal regime, necessitating the consideration of interactions with other regimes. Similarly, it is not always necessary for two treaties to state their mutual supportiveness in order for States to implement them in a synergetic fashion.The main questions for international lawyers are 1) can a conflict be established? and 2) if so, which treaty prevails? CONFLICT CLAUSES The starting point in addressing conflicts is examining whether States have sought to regulate these through so-called conflict clauses (Pauwelyn 2003). The point of these clauses is to clarify the relation between treaties, thus preventing contradictions. This can be achieved, for example, by providing that existing treaties prevail or that a new agreement prevails over existing ones (Wolfrum and Matz 2003). It would not be advisable for the Paris agreement to imprecate on the adoption of conflict clauses due to their prioritising nature which doesnt conform to scientific management. In contrast, the climate agreements contain several clauses that regulate their relation with other multilateral treaties. With regard to the Montreal Protocol, the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol delimit their scope by and covering greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol. Thereby, the climate agreements express awareness of the substantive interlinkages between the problems of climate change and ozone layer depletion, as some ozone-depleting substances are also gr eenhouse gases. However, it does not in itself prevent or resolve conflicts. Another clause is relevant for an issue that has garnered much attention, videlicet the use of carbon sinks in the Kyoto Protocols Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Forestry projects are to a limited extent eligible for emission reduction credit under the CDM rules. However, it is feared that these rules do not ensure the protection of biodiversity and the prevention of estate degradation, and could hence conflict with objectives and obligations of other environmental treaties Although this provision does not state which agreements need to be taken into score, it is reasonable to assume that given the government agency of forests and wetlands as sinks, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the UN Convention to charge Desertification (UNCCD) and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands are relevant. Additionally, the membership of these agreements should be taken into account it is difficult to see how an agreement can be relevant for a Party that has not signed or ratified it. However, it is unclear what on the dot is meant with taking into account, leaving open the question which treaty would prevail in case of a conflict. TREATY INTERPRETATION Treaty reading is an important method that can be applied by diplomats and dispute firmness of purpose bodies to harmonise two norms that seem to be in conflict. Art 31 VCLT provides gives basic interpretation rules, stipulating that a treatys ordinary meaning, its context, and its object and purpose should be taken into consideration. It also gives more dynamic interpretation rules, which determine that interpretation should take into account a) any subsequent agreement between the Parties on interpretation of the treaty, b) any subsequent practice in the application of the treaty, and c) any relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between the parties. CONFLICT RESOLUTION RULES Article 30 VCLT provides rules o n the resolution of conflicts. An unmixed limitation of this provision is that it only applies to treaties relating to the same subject matter (Article 30.1 VCLT). Of course, application then depends on how one defines subject matter. On the one hand, if this is seen as broad as protection of the environment, Article 30 could theoretically apply to conflicts between the UNFCCC and CBD. The previous section has shown that international law does not oddly aim at enhancing synergies between treaties. Stokke (2001) points to the relevance of institutional coordination and cooperation in transaction with interactions. This could take place simply through information exchange between treaty bodies, or in a more ambitious form of comprising joint planning of programmes or even the coordination of substantive decision-making or implementation activities The climate regime has become increasingly involved in this form of interplay management.